"We needed an incarnate God, a God put to death, that we might live. We were put to death together with Him that we might be purified."
— St. Gregory the Theologian, Oration 45: On Holy Pascha

Before you read: This chapter asks you to stand where the disciples stood on Good Friday — not with Easter knowledge but in the raw devastation of watching their hope die on a Roman cross. Read the section on messianic expectation before moving to the chapter's theological resolution, and stay in it long enough to feel the weight of that devastation. The brilliance of Constantinou's argument depends on you understanding how impossible the Cross looked before you understand why it was the only possible fulfillment.

Chapter Overview

Chapter 1 opens The Crucifixion of the King of Glory with a deliberate act of disorientation: the reader stands at the foot of the cross alongside John the Beloved, watching Jesus die. From this emotionally charged ground, Constantinou pivots to the theological problem that anchors the entire book — how could the long-awaited Messiah be crucified? She traces the centuries of messianic expectation shaped by the prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, the Psalms), showing that two strands of prophecy coexisted uneasily: a triumphant Davidic king and a suffering, dying servant. The chapter's central thesis, delivered near its close, is that only God Himself could resolve this contradiction. The Shepherd of Israel becomes the Perfect Lamb; the Creator consents to be killed by his creatures. What appeared to be the catastrophic end of hope is, Constantinou argues, the only possible fulfillment of it.

Main Points

Point 1: The Cross as Catastrophic Rupture for the Disciples

Core Argument: The crucifixion was not merely a painful event but a total collapse of the disciples' world. Everything they knew, witnessed, and believed pointed to Jesus as the Messiah — and then he died on a cross.

Historical Context: First-century Jewish messianic expectation was not an abstract theological idea but a lived hope that structured communal prayer, synagogue readings, and political aspiration under Roman occupation. The arrival of Roman rule in 63 BC under Pompey intensified these hopes. Jesus' disciples, formed by this matrix, could not have been prepared for the Passion.

Biblical Foundation: John 1:45 captures the exuberance of early discipleship — "We have found him of whom Moses in the law and also the prophets wrote." This joy makes the crucifixion's devastation comprehensible.

Patristic Witness: St. John Chrysostom (Homilies on John, Hom. 85) meditates on John's presence at the cross as a singular act of love and courage, noting that John alone of the Twelve stood with the women in fidelity while the others scattered in fear. Chrysostom sees John's witness as a model of the contemplative soul who does not flee the mystery of suffering.

Sub-Points:

• A. John is singled out as the "beloved disciple" and the sole male apostle at the cross — his witness is the narrative frame for the entire book.
• B. The disciples' confusion was not a failure of faith but an inevitable result of encountering a reality no prior category could contain.
• C. The women at the cross (unnamed in this chapter) maintain faithful vigil — a detail Constantinou will develop further. Their presence is historically and theologically significant.

Practical Application: The chapter invites readers to sit with the disciples in their incomprehension before rushing to the resurrection. Orthodox spirituality — especially Holy Week — insists on this: we do not skip past the cross. The Lamentations of Holy Friday are a liturgical training in dwelling at the tomb.

Catechumenate Note: As someone preparing for Baptism, the crucifixion is the event into which you will be plunged — literally. St. Paul writes that Baptism is a death and burial with Christ (Rom. 6:3–4). This chapter's invitation to stand at the cross without yet understanding it mirrors the catechumen's position: you have encountered the living Christ, but the full depths of what that means are still unfolding.

Point 2: The Messianic Matrix — Centuries of Prophetic Expectation

Core Argument: Jewish messianic hope was not monolithic but was shaped by specific prophetic texts, especially from Isaiah, that created a detailed (and at points contradictory) portrait of the Coming One.

Historical Context: The chapter surveys key prophetic texts: a righteous Davidic ruler (Is. 9:7; 11:4), descended from Jesse (Is. 11:1, 10), anointed with the Spirit (Is. 11:2; 61:1), inaugurating a New Covenant (Jer. 31:31), performing healings (Is. 29:18; 35:5–6), and coming as the Servant of the Lord (Is. 42:1; 49:6; 52:13; 53:11). These texts were read liturgically in the synagogue and formed the imaginations of first-century Jews.

Biblical Foundation: Isaiah 9:6–7 is the capstone text of this section — the child born to us whose name is "Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace," whose kingdom will have no end on the throne of David. Constantinou positions this as the prophecy that could only be fulfilled by God Himself entering history.

Patristic Witness: St. Justin Martyr's Dialogue with Trypho (mid-2nd c.) is the earliest extended Christian engagement with Jewish messianic interpretation. Justin argues systematically that Jesus fulfills every strand of prophetic expectation, including those the rabbis found uncomfortable. St. Irenaeus (Against Heresies IV.34) insists the Old Testament is a unified testimony to Christ — not a series of detached proof texts but a coherent narrative arc.

Sub-Points:

• A. The Hasmonean period (brief Jewish independence, ~140–63 BC) followed by Roman occupation under Pompey dramatically intensified messianic longing — the people had tasted freedom and lost it again.
• B. Herod the Great — an Idumean foreigner ruling as a Roman client king — added insult to the sense of occupation, making the desire for a true Davidic king more acute.
• C. The variety of messianic expectations (royal, priestly, prophetic) among different Jewish groups — Pharisees, Essenes, Zealots — meant that "Messiah" was a richly contested concept even before Jesus arrived.

Practical Application: Reading the Old Testament through a messianic lens — as the Orthodox lectionary does throughout Holy Week and Pascha — is not a retroactive imposition but the interpretive key the apostles themselves received from Christ (Lk. 24:27). Orthodox Christians are formed to read Isaiah as a "fifth Gospel."

Catechumenate Note: Part of catechetical formation is learning to read the Old Testament through the eyes of the Church, not through the lens of either modern critical scholarship or Protestant proof-texting. This chapter shows what that reading looks like: attentive to the prophetic themes, aware of the historical context, and always oriented toward their fulfillment in Christ.

Point 3: The Irresolvable Contradiction — Suffering Servant vs. Triumphant King

Core Argument: The prophets simultaneously predicted a suffering, dying Messiah AND an eternal, triumphant king. Within a purely human framework, these two portraits cannot be reconciled — which is precisely why the crucifixion shattered the disciples.

Historical Context: The "Servant Songs" of Isaiah (Is. 42; 49; 52:13–53:12) describe a figure who suffers, is despised, and dies for the sins of others. These texts were profoundly uncomfortable for Second Temple Judaism because they appeared to conflict with the royal Davidic Messiah. Some Jewish interpreters applied them to the nation of Israel collectively; others posited two Messiahs (Messiah ben Joseph who suffers, Messiah ben David who triumphs). The early Christians recognized them as the single figure of Jesus.

Biblical Foundation: Isaiah 53:11 — "Out of the anguish of his soul he shall see and be satisfied; by his knowledge shall the righteous one, my servant, make many to be accounted righteous, and he shall bear their iniquities." This verse encapsulates the soteriological paradox: the servant's suffering is not defeat but victory; his death is the means of justification for many.

Patristic Witness: St. Athanasius (On the Incarnation, §§ 33–40) addresses this directly: he shows that the prophets foretold both the manner of Christ's death (the cross) and its saving effect. Athanasius argues that the "contradiction" dissolves when one understands the Incarnation — God taking flesh precisely in order to die for humanity's sake. St. Cyril of Alexandria's Commentary on Isaiah is the most comprehensive patristic treatment of the Servant Songs as Christological prophecy.

Sub-Points:

• A. The category of "a crucified Messiah" was, in first-century Jewish terms, a contradiction in terms — crucifixion was the death of slaves and criminals, the most shameful possible end (Deut. 21:23: "Cursed is everyone who hangs on a tree," cited by Paul in Gal. 3:13).
• B. This scandal (σκάνδαλον) is taken seriously by Paul in 1 Cor. 1:23 — "Christ crucified, a stumbling block to Jews and folly to Gentiles." Constantinou's framing validates rather than dismisses this stumbling.
• C. The disciples had to have their interpretive framework shattered before it could be rebuilt — this is why the Risen Christ on the road to Emmaus opens the Scriptures to them only after the fact (Lk. 24:25–27).

Practical Application: Orthodox Holy Week liturgy embodies this movement: the Church does not resolve the tension of the cross prematurely. The Bridegroom Matins, the Royal Hours, the Vespers of Holy Friday all dwell in the bewilderment and grief before the dawn of the Resurrection.

Catechumenate Note: The catechumenate itself mirrors this structure — you are preparing for Pascha by passing through the cross. The Western practice of "accepting Jesus as your personal Lord and Savior" can skip too quickly to resurrection joy. Orthodox formation insists: you must learn to stand at the cross first, in incomprehension and trust.

Point 4: The Divine Resolution — Only God Can Be the Messiah

Core Argument: Constantinou's thesis emerges explicitly in this chapter's final movement: the only figure who could fulfill both the triumphant king and the suffering servant prophecies is God Himself entering creation. The Shepherd becomes the Lamb; the Eternal One consents to die.

Historical Context: This insight — that the Messiah must be divine — was not entirely absent from Second Temple Judaism. Texts like the Similitudes of Enoch and certain Dead Sea Scrolls hint at a transcendent, heavenly Messiah. But the full weight of what this meant — God assuming flesh and dying — required the event of the Incarnation and Resurrection to become comprehensible.

Biblical Foundation: Isaiah 9:6 is decisive here: the child born to us is called "Mighty God" (Hebrew: El Gibbor) and "Everlasting Father." This is not merely a powerful human king; these are divine titles. The LXX renders this as "Ἄγγελος Μεγάλης Βουλῆς" (Messenger of Great Counsel), which the Fathers read as the Logos announcing the Father's will — the pre-eternal Son entering time.

Patristic Witness: St. Athanasius (On the Incarnation, §1): "The renewal of creation has been wrought by the Self-same Word who made it in the beginning. There is thus no inconsistency between creation and salvation, for the One Father has employed the same Agent for both works, effecting the salvation of the world through the same Word who made it at first." St. Gregory the Theologian (Oration 45, On Holy Pascha): "We needed an Incarnate God, a God put to death, that we might live."

Sub-Points:

• A. The Kingdom Christ inaugurates is not a restoration of the Hasmonean state or an expulsion of Rome — it is the Kingdom of Heaven breaking into creation. This is why "My kingdom is not of this world" (John 18:36) is not a retreat but a revelation.
• B. The image of the Shepherd becoming the Lamb is central to Orthodox Paschal theology — Christ is simultaneously the Priest, the Altar, and the Sacrifice (a formulation found in the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom).
• C. "Life would never be the same" — Constantinou's final sentence — is both a statement about John's grief and a foreshadowing of the Resurrection. The world John stood in at the foot of the cross was already, though he could not know it, being transformed.

Practical Application: The entire Orthodox liturgical year is oriented around this truth — not just Pascha but every Sunday, which is called "the eighth day" and celebrated as a mini-Resurrection. The cross is not a tragedy followed by a happy ending; it is the means of salvation, the instrument by which death is destroyed.

Catechumenate Note: The Baptismal Liturgy in the Orthodox Church takes place at Pascha precisely because Baptism is participation in this divine act — dying with Christ and rising with Him. As you prepare for reception, you are being drawn into the very event this chapter describes: God entering death so that those united to Him might not remain in it.

Bible Verse Deep Dives

Isaiah 9:6–7 — "For to us a child is born, to us a son is given…"

• Context: Part of Isaiah's "Book of Immanuel" (Is. 7–12), addressed to the Southern Kingdom of Judah during the Syro-Ephraimite crisis (c. 735 BC). The immediate referent is disputed, but the Church reads it as unambiguously messianic.
• Theological Significance: The divine titles given to this child — Mighty God (El Gibbor), Everlasting Father (Abi-ad) — exceed any merely human ruler. This is why the Fathers argue the text requires a divine Messiah.
• Use in Chapter: Constantinou places this text as the culminating Old Testament prophecy that could only be fulfilled by God Himself — the linchpin of her chapter-closing argument.
• Cross-References: Micah 5:2 (born in Bethlehem, whose origin is from of old, from ancient days); John 1:14 ("the Word became flesh"); Rev. 19:16 ("King of kings and Lord of lords").
• LXX Note: The LXX renders the list of names as a single title: "Ἄγγελος Μεγάλης Βουλῆς" (Messenger of Great Counsel) rather than the four Hebrew titles. The Fathers — particularly Origen and St. Cyril — see in this rendering the Logos as the one who reveals the Father's eternal decree of salvation. This is not a lesser reading but a distinct theological lens: the Son as the revealer of the Father's great counsel (βουλή) of redemption.

Isaiah 53:11 — "By his knowledge shall the righteous one, my servant, make many to be accounted righteous"

• Context: The fourth and climactic Servant Song (Is. 52:13–53:12). The servant has been despised, stricken, pierced — and yet through his suffering the many are healed and justified.
• Theological Significance: This text is the closest the Old Testament comes to a doctrine of substitutionary atonement in the broad sense — the servant bears the iniquities of others. Orthodox theology, however, reads this not primarily as legal substitution but as the divine Physician taking on the disease of sin in order to heal it from within.
• Use in Chapter: Referenced as part of the "suffering Messiah" strand that contradicted first-century Jewish expectations of a triumphant king.
• Cross-References: Acts 8:32–35 (Philip explains this passage to the Ethiopian eunuch as referring to Jesus); 1 Pet. 2:24 ("He himself bore our sins in his body on the tree"); John 1:29 ("Behold the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world").
• LXX Note: The LXX of Is. 53:11 reads: "The Lord also is pleased to take away from him the travail of his soul, to show him light, and to form him with understanding; to justify the just one who serves many well; and he shall bear their sins." The phrase "show him light" (δεῖξαι αὐτῷ φῶς) is absent from the Hebrew MT but present in the LXX and the Dead Sea Scrolls (1QIsa^a). The Orthodox Church reads this additional phrase as a reference to the Resurrection — the Lord showing the suffering servant the light of the eighth day.

Jeremiah 31:31 / 38:31 LXX — "I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel"

• Context: The "Book of Consolation" (Jer. 30–33), written during or after the Babylonian exile. God promises an entirely new mode of covenant — not written on stone but on the heart.
• Theological Significance: This is the single Old Testament use of "new covenant" (καινὴ διαθήκη), the phrase Jesus uses at the Last Supper ("This cup is the new covenant in my blood," Lk. 22:20). The Messiah is therefore the mediator of this new covenantal order.
• Use in Chapter: Listed among the messianic expectations the Messiah would fulfill — specifically, the expectation of a transformed relationship between God and his people.
• Cross-References: Heb. 8:8–12 (extended quotation of Jer. 31 as fulfilled in Christ); Lk. 22:20; 2 Cor. 3:6 ("ministers of a new covenant").
• LXX Note: The chapter numbering differs — Jer. 31:31 in the Hebrew MT = Jer. 38:31 in the LXX, which follows a different arrangement of the book. Constantinou helpfully cites both versifications. The Orthodox Study Bible and Orthodox liturgical texts use LXX versification throughout Jeremiah. This difference is worth knowing as you move between Orthodox and Protestant biblical resources.

John 1:45 — "We have found him of whom Moses in the law and also the prophets wrote"

• Context: Philip's announcement to Nathaniel immediately after his own calling. The verse captures the disciples' initial joy and certainty that Jesus is the fulfillment of all Israel's hopes.
• Theological Significance: Philip frames Jesus in entirely scriptural terms — Moses and the prophets. This is the hermeneutical key: Jesus is not a new religion but the fulfillment of the existing one.
• Use in Chapter: Constantinou uses this verse to evoke the disciples' exuberant confidence — which makes their subsequent devastation at the cross all the more acute.
• Cross-References: Lk. 24:27 (the risen Christ opening the Scriptures on the road to Emmaus); John 5:46 ("If you believed Moses, you would believe me, for he wrote of me"); Acts 3:24 (Peter: "All the prophets… proclaimed these days").
• LXX Note: No significant LXX/MT divergence at this verse; it is a New Testament text.

Orthodox Lens

Liturgical Connection

The opening scene of Chapter 1 — standing at the foot of the cross — is precisely the posture the Church assumes during the Aposticha of Holy Friday Vespers and the Matins of Holy Saturday. The Lamentations (Epitaphios Threnos) place the faithful at the tomb, singing over the body of Christ. The Church does not rush to the Resurrection; she keeps vigil. The liturgical arc of Holy Week — from the Bridegroom Matins of Holy Monday through the darkness of Holy Friday — is the liturgical embodiment of the disciples' journey from exuberant Hosannas to devastated grief. Chapter 1 opens in the middle of that arc.

The Twelve Gospels of Holy Friday Matins (Orthros) are the Church's extended meditation on Christ's passion — each Gospel reading deepening the account, each paired with an antiphon drawn from the prophets (especially Isaiah and the Psalms). Constantinou's chapter does in prose what those services do liturgically: place the Passion in its full Old Testament prophetic context.

Ascetic Formation

Constantinou's opening narrative — the thirst, the battered body, the swollen face, John's grief — is a call to kenotic attention: to dwell with suffering rather than fleeing it. Orthodox asceticism is not a flight from the body but a disciplined attentiveness to what the body bears. The spiritual practice relevant here is prosoche (προσοχή) — watchful attention — applied to Christ's Passion. To read this chapter slowly, with a wakeful heart, is itself an ascetic act.

The disciples' incomprehension is also formative: not every mystery is meant to be resolved immediately. Apophatic theology, central to Orthodox spirituality, teaches that the deepest truths exceed rational comprehension. Standing with John at the cross in unknowing is not a failure of faith but a form of it.

Sacramental Theology

The cross is the event that makes Baptism possible and gives it its content. St. Paul is explicit: "Do you not know that all of us who have been baptized into Christ Jesus were baptized into his death?" (Rom. 6:3). The Baptismal font is a tomb. The Orthodox rite of Baptism — triple immersion — is a three-day burial and resurrection with Christ. Chapter 1 establishes the event that the font re-presents.

The Eucharist, too, is grounded here. Every Divine Liturgy is a memorial (anamnesis, ἀνάμνησις) of the Passion — not merely a recollection but a genuine re-presentation of the sacrifice of Calvary before the Father. "Your own, of your own, we offer to you, on behalf of all and for all" — the anaphora of St. John Chrysostom situates the offering of bread and wine within the once-for-all event of the cross.

Patristic Harmony

St. Athanasius (On the Incarnation, §§ 1–4) articulates the theological logic Constantinou assumes throughout Chapter 1: humanity had fallen into corruption and death; no created being could restore what had been lost; only the Creator himself, taking on the very nature that had fallen, could heal it from within. The cross is not an emergency measure but the pre-eternal decree of God — the "great counsel" (βουλή) of the LXX rendering of Is. 9:6.

St. Gregory the Theologian (Oration 29, Third Theological Oration, §19): "He who is the Word, the Wisdom, the Power, the Image, the Radiance of God, the Impress of the Father's nature — becomes man, is born of a Virgin, is crucified with his flesh... so that by taking what was ours he might impart what was his." This is the theological grammar behind Constantinou's thesis that only God could be the Messiah.

Thematic Concept Analysis

1. Messianic Expectation (ἐλπίς / elpis — hope)

In Orthodox context: Hope (elpis) is a theological virtue — not wishful thinking but confident orientation toward the one in whom God has promised to act. Israel's messianic hope was not merely cultural or political but a form of theological virtue, shaped and sustained by liturgical reading of the prophets.

Development through the chapter: Constantinou traces hope from its prophetic formation (Isaiah, Jeremiah) through its intensification under Roman occupation to its apparent destruction at the cross — and implicitly, its transformation. The chapter ends not in resurrection but in grief; the hope that will emerge from this will be qualitatively different from what preceded it.

Soteriological implications: The fulfillment of messianic hope requires the death of the form in which it was held. Salvation involves a purification of desire — what we hoped for was true, but we did not yet know what it truly meant.

2. Divine Condescension / Kenosis (κένωσις)

In Orthodox context: Kenosis (Phil. 2:7 — "he emptied himself, taking the form of a servant") names the voluntary self-limitation of the divine Son in assuming human nature. It is not a diminishment of divinity but its supreme expression — love that holds nothing back.

Development through the chapter: Though Constantinou does not use the term explicitly, the logic of kenosis structures her argument: the Shepherd becomes the Lamb; the Creator is killed by his creatures; the King of the universe suffers at the hands of his servants. Each of these formulations is a kenotic statement.

Soteriological implications: Because the one who dies is God, death is not merely overcome — it is destroyed from within. St. John Chrysostom's Paschal homily: "Hell took a body and encountered God. It took earth and met heaven. It took what it saw, and was overcome by what it did not see." Kenosis is the precondition of Pascha.

3. The Servant / Lamb Typology (παῖς / ἀμνός)

In Orthodox context: The parable of the Servant (παῖς) in Isaiah's Servant Songs and the Lamb (ἀμνός) of the Passover tradition merge in John the Baptist's declaration: "Behold the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world" (John 1:29). Orthodox liturgical theology, especially in the preparation of the Eucharistic bread (the Proskomide), enacts this typology literally — the priest cuts the amnos (the central square of the prosphora loaf) while chanting Is. 53:7–8 LXX.

Development through the chapter: Constantinou invokes both images — "The Shepherd of Israel would become the Perfect Lamb" — as her climactic statement of how the two messianic strands resolve.

Soteriological implications: Christ as both Shepherd (the one who leads) and Lamb (the one who is led to slaughter) means that his death is simultaneously sacrificial and sovereign — not a defeat but a willing offering.

4. The Kingdom of Heaven (βασιλεία τῶν οὐρανῶν)

In Orthodox context: The Kingdom (βασιλεία) proclaimed by Jesus is not a future political arrangement but the reign of God breaking into the present order — already present ("the Kingdom of God is in your midst," Lk. 17:21) and yet still coming (the eschaton). The Church is the foretaste and instrument of the Kingdom.

Development through the chapter: The disciples hoped for an earthly Davidic restoration; the Kingdom Christ brings is "not of this world" (John 18:36). Constantinou positions this as the resolution to the messianic paradox: a kingdom of perfect peace and everlasting duration (Is. 9:7) cannot be an earthly political entity — it must be the Kingdom of heaven.

Eschatological implications: The cross is not the end of the Kingdom but the means of its inauguration. The Church's life between Pascha and the Second Coming is a participation in the Kingdom already given and a longing for its fullness yet to come.

5. Witness (μαρτυρία / martyria)

In Orthodox context: Martyria (witness) is the root of martyr — ultimately, witness to Christ is costly. John's witness at the cross is the first instance of this pattern: the beloved disciple does not flee but remains, bearing witness to the event he cannot yet understand.

Development through the chapter: John is the frame narrator — the chapter is told from his perspective at the cross. His witness is both historically credible (he was there) and theologically paradigmatic (he remained when others fled).

Soteriological implications: The Passion requires witnesses — not for God's benefit, but for ours. The chain of witness (the women, John, the apostles, the martyrs) is what transmits the event across time. The Church herself is a community of witness.

Key Concept Highlights

Reflection Questions

1. Comprehension: What were the two apparently contradictory strands of messianic prophecy that Constantinou identifies? How did first-century Jews attempt to resolve them?

2. Comprehension: Why does Constantinou argue that only God Himself could be the Messiah? What in the prophetic texts leads her to this conclusion?

3. Theological/Analytical: If the prophets foretold both a suffering servant and a triumphant king, why were the disciples still unprepared for the crucifixion? What does this suggest about the difference between knowing a prophecy and receiving its fulfillment?

4. Theological/Analytical: Constantinou writes that "the Shepherd of Israel would become the Perfect Lamb." How does this image of the Shepherd-as-Lamb resolve the messianic paradox? What does it imply about the nature of divine power?

5. Personal/Devotional: John remained at the cross while the other disciples fled. Have there been moments in your own life when you were asked to remain present to something painful without understanding it? What does John's witness offer as a model?

6. Personal/Devotional: The chapter ends: "Life would never be the same. He was right." In what sense does encountering Christ always make life "not the same"? How has your own journey toward the Orthodox faith involved the collapse of prior frameworks?

7. Liturgical/Sacramental: How does Holy Week liturgy — specifically the Lamentations of Holy Saturday Matins — embody the posture of Chapter 1? What would it mean to enter Holy Week as a genuine participant in the disciples' grief rather than as an observer who already knows the ending?

8. Liturgical/Sacramental: The Eucharist is called "the new covenant in my blood" (Lk. 22:20), directly echoing Jeremiah 31:31. When you receive the Eucharist, you are participating in the fulfillment of what Constantinou describes as a central messianic promise. How does knowing the Old Testament background of that phrase change how you approach the chalice?

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Analysis completed: 2026-05-02 | Source: The Crucifixion of the King of Glory, Ch. 1 | Analysis depth: Tier 3